[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":32},["ShallowReactive",2],{"zoom:p7ch1z7:en":3},{"period":4,"chapter":22,"zoom":25},{"id":5,"title":6,"titleEn":6,"titleEs":7,"range":8,"rangeEn":8,"rangeEs":8,"covers":9},"p7","Renaissance","Renacimiento","1461 → 1610",[10,13,16,19],{"filename":11,"url":12},"British_-_Field_of_the_Cloth_of_Gold_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg","https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/British_-_Field_of_the_Cloth_of_Gold_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg?width=1600",{"filename":14,"url":15},"Marignan-1515-francois1er.jpg","https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Marignan-1515-francois1er.jpg?width=1600",{"filename":17,"url":18},"ChateauDeChambord.jpg","https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/ChateauDeChambord.jpg?width=1600",{"filename":20,"url":21},"Henri_IV_Toschi_(format_original).jpg","https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Henri_IV_Toschi_(format_original).jpg?width=1600",{"id":23,"title":24},"p7ch1","Louis XI: the spider and the construction of the modern state (1461-1483)",{"id":26,"title":27,"chapterId":23,"html":28,"hasEn":29,"isFallback":30,"seoDescription":31},"p7ch1z7","1477–1483: modernisation of the kingdom and final years","\u003Cp>The final years of Louis XI’s reign were marked by major administrative, economic and military reforms, as well as by the consolidation of territorial acquisitions and the preparation of the succession.\u003C/p>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>⛪ Diplomatic crisis with Sixtus IV\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>The request for a cardinalate\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>Louis XI, wishing to increase his influence in Rome, actively requested that Pope \u003Cstrong>Sixtus IV\u003C/strong> appoint his cousin, the Archbishop of Lyon \u003Cstrong>Charles of Bourbon\u003C/strong>, as cardinal.\u003C/p>\n\u003Ch3>The royal disappointment\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>August 1472\u003C/strong>: Sixtus IV sent a letter promising the appointment\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>May 1473\u003C/strong>: at the consistory, Charles of Bourbon was not appointed\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Churchmen viewed unfavourably by Louis XI, including \u003Cstrong>Stefano Nardini\u003C/strong>, received the cardinal’s hat\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Louis XI’s reaction\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>Furious, Louis XI sent an insolent letter to the pope in which he accused him of \u003Cstrong>simony\u003C/strong>. This crisis marked the deterioration of relations between France and the papacy.\u003C/p>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>⚔️ Neutralisation of the other great feudal lords\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>John V of Armagnac\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1470\u003C/strong>: Louis XI placed Rouergue and Armagnac under sequestration\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1473\u003C/strong>: John V of Armagnac revolted and met his death at Lectoure\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>His widow, \u003Cstrong>Jeanne de Foix-Grailly\u003C/strong>, pregnant, died confined at the château of Buzet\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>René of Anjou\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1474\u003C/strong>: Louis XI manoeuvred against his uncle René of Anjou\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Went to Angers with his army under the guise of a courtesy visit\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Demanded the keys of the town and installed a garrison\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>René of Anjou, aged 65, ceded Anjou without a fight\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Anjou was permanently incorporated into the royal domain\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Margaret of Anjou\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1475\u003C/strong>: after the Treaty of Picquigny, Louis XI obtained the release of \u003Cstrong>Margaret of Anjou\u003C/strong>, daughter of René of Anjou and former queen of England\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Paid 50,000 gold écus for her release\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>29 January 1476\u003C/strong>: Margaret returned to Rouen\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Had to renounce her rights to the Angevin inheritance in favour of Louis XI\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🏛️ The modernisation of the kingdom\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>The postal system\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1477\u003C/strong>: creation of the \u003Cstrong>postal relay\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Allowed the king to be the first informed of events in his kingdom\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>A fast and efficient communication network\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Printing\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1469\u003C/strong>: authorisation to establish a printing workshop at the Sorbonne\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1470s\u003C/strong>: development of printing in Lyon (1473), Albi (1475), etc.\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Louis XI was the first king to promote printing in France\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Military reform\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1480\u003C/strong>: modernisation of the royal army\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Replacement of the militia of free archers with a \u003Cstrong>standing infantry\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Organised on the Swiss model: \u003Cstrong>French companies\u003C/strong> or \u003Cstrong>Picardy companies\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Financed by increased taxes (tripled over the course of the reign)\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🤝 The Treaty of Arras (1482)\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>The negotiations\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1482\u003C/strong>: Treaty of Arras with Maximilian of Austria\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Louis XI recovered \u003Cstrong>Picardy\u003C/strong> and the \u003Cstrong>Duchy of Burgundy\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>France also obtained the \u003Cstrong>County of Burgundy\u003C/strong> (Franche-Comté), \u003Cstrong>Artois\u003C/strong> and \u003Cstrong>Flanders\u003C/strong> as the dowry of \u003Cstrong>Margaret of Burgundy\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The planned marriage\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>Margaret of Burgundy, daughter of Mary of Burgundy, was to marry the future Charles VIII\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>This marriage would have consolidated the territorial acquisitions\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Ultimately, Charles VIII would abandon this marriage and return part of the territories\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>👑 The final acquisitions\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>By inheritance\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Maine\u003C/strong> and \u003Cstrong>Provence\u003C/strong> through the inheritance of René I of Anjou\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Viscounty of Thouars\u003C/strong> taken back from Nicolas of Anjou in 1472\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The educational treatise\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Around 1482\u003C/strong>: Louis XI had the \u003Cstrong>Rosier des guerres\u003C/strong> written by his physician Pierre Choisnet\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>A treatise on political, historical and moral education intended for his son Charles VIII\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Advice on continuing the policy of territorial reunification\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>⛪ Francis of Paola at court\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>The king’s request\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1481\u003C/strong>: Louis XI, gravely ill, heard of the miracles of \u003Cstrong>Francis of Paola\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Asked Pope Sixtus IV to send the holy monk to France\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>24 April 1483\u003C/strong>: Francis of Paola arrived in Lyon, received with honour\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The meeting at Plessis-lès-Tours\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>Louis XI threw himself at the feet of Francis of Paola\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Implored his blessings and promised to build two convents\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Francis of Paola advised the king to prepare to die as a Christian\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>⚰️ Death and burial\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>The king’s illness\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>Several apoplectic attacks (the first in May 1473)\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>March 1481\u003C/strong>: a cerebral haemorrhage at Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>September 1481\u003C/strong>: a further attack at the château of Plessis-lès-Tours\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Superstitious, he forbade anyone to say the word “death” in his presence\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The death of Louis XI\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>30 August 1483\u003C/strong>: Louis XI died at the château of Plessis-lès-Tours\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Aged 60, after a 22-year reign\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>His son Charles VIII, aged 13, succeeded him\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The burial\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>6 September 1483\u003C/strong>: burial in the \u003Cstrong>basilica of Notre-Dame de Cléry\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>In accordance with his wish to forgo the royal necropolis of Saint-Denis\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Like Louis VII and Philip I, he chose a more modest burial place\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🧠 The political mind of Louis XI\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>Cunning as a political weapon\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>Louis XI, nicknamed “the spider”, developed a policy founded on cunning, patience and calculation. His political method was characterised by:\u003C/p>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Avoidance of pitched battles\u003C/strong>: preferred negotiation and diplomacy\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Use of money as a weapon\u003C/strong>: bought peace rather than waging war\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>A network of informants\u003C/strong>: developed an effective espionage system\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Manipulation of alliances\u003C/strong>: played rivals off against one another\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The Treaty of Péronne (1468): a lesson in realism\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>The meeting at Péronne, where Louis XI was caught in a trap by Charles the Bold, taught him a lesson in political realism. Rather than risk his life, he signed a disadvantageous treaty that he would not honour once free. This experience reinforced his distrust and his pragmatism.\u003C/p>\n\u003Ch3>The financial weapon: the Treaty of Picquigny (1475)\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>The Treaty of Picquigny perfectly illustrates Louis XI’s method. Rather than confront Edward IV’s English army, he preferred to:\u003C/p>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Pay 425,000 écus\u003C/strong> immediately\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Pay an annual pension\u003C/strong> of 50,000 gold écus\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Buy peace\u003C/strong> rather than risk a costly war\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Cp>This strategy allowed him to definitively neutralise the English threat and concentrate his forces against Charles the Bold.\u003C/p>\n\u003Ch3>The diplomacy of marriage\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>Louis XI systematically used marriages as a political instrument:\u003C/p>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Jeanne of France\u003C/strong> married to Louis of Orléans to extinguish a rival branch\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Madeleine of France\u003C/strong> married to Gaston de Foix to strengthen ties with Béarn\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>A planned marriage\u003C/strong> between Charles VIII and Margaret of Austria to consolidate the Burgundian acquisitions\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Modernisation as a consolidation of power\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>Louis XI’s reforms were not merely technical; they were also political:\u003C/p>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>The royal postal system\u003C/strong>: allowed tighter control of the territory\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Printing\u003C/strong>: fostered the spread of ideas and control of information\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Military reform\u003C/strong>: created a standing army loyal to the king\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Centralised administration\u003C/strong>: reduced the power of the great feudal lords\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🧠 Key takeaways\u003C/h2>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1477\u003C/strong>: creation of the postal relay\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1480\u003C/strong>: military reform (French companies)\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1482\u003C/strong>: Treaty of Arras (acquisition of Picardy and Burgundy)\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>1483\u003C/strong>: arrival of Francis of Paola at court\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>30 August 1483\u003C/strong>: death of Louis XI at Plessis-lès-Tours\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Administrative, economic and military modernisation of the kingdom\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Consolidation of territorial acquisitions\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>Meticulous preparation of the succession\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>A policy founded on cunning, diplomacy and money rather than war\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n",true,false,"The final years of Louis XI’s reign were marked by major administrative, economic and military reforms, as well as by the consolidation of territorial",1783898186713]