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1494–1495: the Italian expedition and the conquest of Naples

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Charles VIII: the Italian adventure and the end of the direct dynasty (1483–1498) · RENAISSANCE

The Italian expedition of Charles VIII (1494-1495) marked the beginning of the Italian Wars, which would last until 1559. This campaign, driven by dynastic claims to the kingdom of Naples, revealed French military power while also exposing the limits of its strategy.

🏰 Context and motivations

Charles VIII’s claims in Italy

Charles VIII asserted rights inherited from the House of Anjou, being descended from Yolande of Aragon, mother of King René and grandmother of Louis XI. René of Anjou (1409-1480), also Duke of Lorraine and Count of Provence, had been king of Naples — hence the usual title of “King René” — from 1434 until his death, though in name only.

In fact, the kingdom had, since 1435, been in the hands of an Aragonese dynasty, then represented by Ferdinand I (1423-1494), a distant cousin of Ferdinand II of Aragon.

On the death of King René, his rights passed to the House of Valois (Louis XI, then Charles VIII).

The dynastic claims

  • Angevin inheritance: Charles VIII claimed the kingdom of Naples through the House of Anjou
  • Succession: René of Anjou (died 1480) bequeathed his rights to Louis XI
  • Dispute: the throne of Naples was occupied by Ferdinand I of Aragon

Charles VIII’s motivations

  1. Personal glory: a desire for conquest and prestige
  2. Mediterranean strategy: control of trade routes
  3. Against the Habsburgs: to prevent the encirclement of France
  4. The Italian Renaissance: fascination with Italian culture

The Italian context

  • Political fragmentation: Italy divided into multiple states
  • Rivalries: Milan, Venice, Florence, Naples, the Papal States
  • A call for help: Ludovico Sforza (Milan) invited Charles VIII to intervene

⚔️ Preparations for the expedition

Military mobilisation

  • Army: 25,000 men (including 8,000 Swiss mercenaries)
  • Artillery: 136 cannon, a modern artillery train
  • Logistics: complex supply over 1,000 km
  • Financing: loans, taxes, sale of offices

Diplomatic preparation: the neutrality treaties

Once the question of the Breton succession had been settled to his advantage, Charles VIII decided to assert his rights to the kingdom of Naples (officially: the kingdom of peninsular Sicily). He first secured the neutrality of several sovereigns:

  1. Treaty of Étaples (3 January 1492) with Henry VII of England:

    • Henry VII recognised Charles’s marriage to Anne of Brittany
    • Charles settled the duchy’s debts to England
    • The impostor Perkin Warbeck, a pretender to the English throne, was expelled
    • Charles paid an indemnity to Henry VII

  2. Treaty of Barcelona (19 January 1493) with King Ferdinand II of Aragon:

    • The treaty also applied to Castile, Ferdinand being the husband of Queen Isabella of Castile
    • In exchange for his neutrality in Italy, the king of Aragon recovered Roussillon, Cerdagne, Conflent and Vallespir, conquered by Louis XI

  3. Treaty of Senlis (23 May 1493) with Maximilian of Austria:

    • A follow-up to the Treaty of Arras of 1482
    • Dealt in particular with the consequences of the breaking-off of Charles VIII’s betrothal to Margaret of Austria
    • Charles VIII gave up Margaret’s (unpaid) dowry
    • Maximilian, on behalf of his son Philip the Handsome, recovered the county of Burgundy (an imperial fief), the county of Nevers and the Charolais (fiefs of France), as well as the county of Artois (a fief of France), except Thérouanne

Prior diplomacy in Italy

  • Alliances: a treaty with Milan, Venetian neutrality
  • Negotiations: with Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia)
  • Isolation of Naples: Ferdinand I of Aragon left without allies

Departure of the expedition

  • Date: August 1494
  • Route: Lyon, Turin, Milan, Florence, Rome, Naples
  • Objective: to cross Italy without fighting if possible

🗺️ The crossing of Italy

Entry into Italy (September 1494)

  • Crossing the Alps: via the Montgenèvre pass
  • Reception at Turin: a lavish ceremony
  • Treaty with Milan: logistical support from Ludovico Sforza

Florence (November 1494)

  • Change of power: the fall of the Medici, establishment of the republic
  • Savonarola: the Dominican preacher, an ally of the French
  • Contribution: Florence paid 120,000 florins

Rome (December 1494-January 1495)

  • Entry into Rome: 31 December 1494
  • Meeting with the pope: Alexander VI negotiated the passage
  • Terms: free passage, hostages (including Cesare Borgia)

👑 The conquest of Naples

Advance towards the south

  • January-February 1495: a rapid march towards Naples
  • Limited resistance: towns surrendered without fighting
  • Propaganda: Charles VIII presented himself as a liberator

Entry into Naples (22 February 1495)

  • Triumphal ceremony: a solemn entry into the city
  • Coronation: Charles VIII proclaimed himself king of Naples and Jerusalem
  • Administration: a French government installed

The French government in Naples

  • Reforms: an attempt to introduce French administration
  • Problems: resistance from the local nobility
  • Taxes: heavy taxation, growing unpopularity

⚔️ The Italian reaction

Formation of the League of Venice

  • Date: 31 March 1495
  • Members: Venice, Milan, Spain, the Empire, the Papal States
  • Objective: to drive the French out of Italy
  • Commander: Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua

The League’s strategy

  • Blockade: to cut French lines of communication
  • Waiting game: to let the French army weaken itself in Naples
  • Counter-offensive: to attack during