[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":32},["ShallowReactive",2],{"zoom:p7ch2z6:en":3},{"period":4,"chapter":22,"zoom":25},{"id":5,"title":6,"titleEn":6,"titleEs":7,"range":8,"rangeEn":8,"rangeEs":8,"covers":9},"p7","Renaissance","Renacimiento","1461 → 1610",[10,13,16,19],{"filename":11,"url":12},"British_-_Field_of_the_Cloth_of_Gold_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg","https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/British_-_Field_of_the_Cloth_of_Gold_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg?width=1600",{"filename":14,"url":15},"Marignan-1515-francois1er.jpg","https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Marignan-1515-francois1er.jpg?width=1600",{"filename":17,"url":18},"ChateauDeChambord.jpg","https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/ChateauDeChambord.jpg?width=1600",{"filename":20,"url":21},"Henri_IV_Toschi_(format_original).jpg","https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Henri_IV_Toschi_(format_original).jpg?width=1600",{"id":23,"title":24},"p7ch2","Charles VIII: the Italian adventure and the end of the direct dynasty (1483–1498)",{"id":26,"title":27,"chapterId":23,"html":28,"hasEn":29,"isFallback":30,"seoDescription":31},"p7ch2z6","1495–1498: final years and succession","\u003Cp>The final three years of the reign of Charles VIII were marked by the consequences of the Italian expedition, succession problems and the king’s accidental death. This period prepared the transition to the reign of Louis XII and the continuation of the Italian Wars.\u003C/p>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🏰 Return from Italy and assessment\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>Return to court (November 1495)\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Reception\u003C/strong>: a mixture of admiration and disappointment\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Financial assessment\u003C/strong>: considerable debt, an exhausted treasury\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Prestige\u003C/strong>: military glory tarnished by political failure\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Reorganisation of the kingdom\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Finances\u003C/strong>: new taxes, forced loans\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Administration\u003C/strong>: strengthening of royal control\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Diplomacy\u003C/strong>: repairing relations with neighbours\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The king’s health\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Persistent problems\u003C/strong>: fragile health since childhood\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Aftereffects of the expedition\u003C/strong>: fatigue, illnesses contracted in Italy\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Physicians\u003C/strong>: constant care, regimens, remedies\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>👨‍👩‍👧 Family life and the succession problem\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>Relationship with Anne of Brittany\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Married life\u003C/strong>: a good understanding despite their differences\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Residences\u003C/strong>: the châteaux of Amboise, Blois, Plessis-lès-Tours\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Court\u003C/strong>: the flourishing of artistic patronage\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The children of Charles VIII\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Charles-Orland (11 October 1492 – 16 December 1495)\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Birth\u003C/strong>: the first son, a source of immense hope\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Upbringing\u003C/strong>: special care, tutors\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Death\u003C/strong>: smallpox at age 3, national mourning\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Charles (8 September 1496 – 2 October 1496)\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Birth\u003C/strong>: premature, poor health\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Death\u003C/strong>: 3 weeks after birth\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Francis (stillborn in 1497)\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>A difficult pregnancy\u003C/strong>: Anne of Brittany’s fragile health\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Death\u003C/strong>: died at birth\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Anne (1498)\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Birth\u003C/strong>: a daughter, did not survive\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Consequence\u003C/strong>: no surviving direct heir\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The dynastic problem\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>No male heir\u003C/strong>: an uncertain succession\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Salic law\u003C/strong>: excluded women from the succession\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Heir presumptive\u003C/strong>: Louis of Orléans (a cousin)\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Tensions\u003C/strong>: rivalries over the succession\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🏰 Projects and achievements\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>Architecture and the arts\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Château of Amboise\u003C/strong>: Charles notably had the renovation of the royal château and the decoration of the Saint-Hubert chapel completed. He also had the royal estate of Château-Gaillard built there.\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Château of Blois\u003C/strong>: work began\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Patronage\u003C/strong>: support for Italian artists\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>The French Renaissance\u003C/strong>: the introduction of Italian styles\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Administration and justice\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Ordinances\u003C/strong>: administrative reforms\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Justice\u003C/strong>: improvement of the royal courts\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Finances\u003C/strong>: an attempt at consolidation\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Diplomacy\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Relations with England\u003C/strong>: the Treaty of Étaples (1492)\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Relations with Spain\u003C/strong>: the Treaty of Barcelona (1493)\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Relations with the Empire\u003C/strong>: persistent tensions\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Italy\u003C/strong>: preparation of a new expedition\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Persistent Italian ambitions\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>Charles VIII returned to the kingdom of France, arriving at Grenoble at the end of the same month, and despite his persistent Italian ambitions, he never crossed the Alps again before his death. At the start of 1497, the French army left behind in Naples surrendered to the Spanish captain Gonzalo de Córdoba, known as “the Great Captain”.\u003C/p>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>⚰️ The death of Charles VIII\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>The circumstances\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Date\u003C/strong>: 7 April 1498\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Place\u003C/strong>: the château of Amboise\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Age\u003C/strong>: 27\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Cause\u003C/strong>: an accident after striking a door lintel\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Length of reign\u003C/strong>: almost 15 years (1483-1498)\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Context\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>Queen Anne of Brittany was recovering at the château of Amboise from her latest confinement on 20 March — yet another stillbirth. To distract her, Charles took her to watch a game of real tennis.\u003C/p>\n\u003Ch3>The accident\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>While passing through the Hacquelbac gallery, Charles VIII struck his head violently against a stone lintel. He collapsed a few hours later and died after 9 hours of agony.\u003C/p>\n\u003Cp>🔍 \u003Cstrong>\u003Ca href=\"/en/zoom/p7ch2z7\">For the full details of the accident and the funeral, see the dedicated zoom\u003C/a>\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>👑 Succession and funeral\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>The succession\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Salic law\u003C/strong>: no direct male heir\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Legitimate heir\u003C/strong>: Louis of Orléans (a cousin)\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Proclamation\u003C/strong>: 8 April 1498\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Regnal name\u003C/strong>: Louis XII\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>The funeral\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Transport\u003C/strong>: the embalmed body, carried to Paris\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Ceremony\u003C/strong>: the basilica of Saint-Denis\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Tomb\u003C/strong>: a simple monument, in keeping with tradition\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Mourning\u003C/strong>: 40 days of national mourning\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Anne of Brittany\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Status\u003C/strong>: a widow at 21\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Return to Brittany\u003C/strong>: reasserting her rights\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Future marriage\u003C/strong>: she would marry Louis XII in 1499\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Role\u003C/strong>: continued to play an important political role\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🏆 Assessment of the reign\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>Positive achievements\u003C/h3>\n\u003Col>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>End of Breton independence\u003C/strong>: the marriage to Anne of Brittany\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Military prestige\u003C/strong>: the Italian expedition, the battle of Fornovo\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Introduction of the Renaissance\u003C/strong>: Italian arts in France\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Domestic stability\u003C/strong>: no major revolts\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\u003Ch3>Failures and problems\u003C/h3>\n\u003Col>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>No heir\u003C/strong>: the end of the direct Valois dynasty\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Italian failure\u003C/strong>: loss of the conquests, enormous debt\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Fragile health\u003C/strong>: premature death at 27\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Contested succession\u003C/strong>: tensions with the Orléans branch\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\u003Ch3>Legacy\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Italian Wars\u003C/strong>: the opening of a 65-year conflict\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>The French Renaissance\u003C/strong>: the spread of Italian culture\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Territorial unity\u003C/strong>: consolidation of the kingdom\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Modernisation\u003C/strong>: administration, the army, the arts\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🧠 Key takeaways\u003C/h2>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>7 April 1498\u003C/strong>: the accidental death of Charles VIII at Amboise\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Cause\u003C/strong>: struck a door lintel, fracturing his skull\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Age\u003C/strong>: 27, a 15-year reign (1483-1498)\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Succession\u003C/strong>: Louis of Orléans became Louis XII\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Dynastic problem\u003C/strong>: no male heir, the end of the direct Valois\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Legacy\u003C/strong>: the start of the Italian Wars, the introduction of the Renaissance\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Anne of Brittany\u003C/strong>: a widow at 21, she would marry Louis XII in 1499\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>📜 Sources and interpretations\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>Contemporary sources\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Medical reports\u003C/strong>: description of the accident and the injuries\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Chronicles\u003C/strong>: Jean d’Auton, Philippe de Commynes\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Correspondence\u003C/strong>: letters of Anne of Brittany, ambassadors’ reports\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Official documents\u003C/strong>: acts of succession, wills\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Historical interpretations\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Traditional view\u003C/strong>: an impulsive king, a reign marked by the Italian failure\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Revisionist view\u003C/strong>: a forerunner of the Renaissance, a moderniser\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Breton view\u003C/strong>: an agent of Brittany’s incorporation\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>European view\u003C/strong>: the instigator of the Italian Wars\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Posterity\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Memory\u003C/strong>: a king often forgotten between Louis XI and Louis XII\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Popular culture\u003C/strong>: his accidental death is often mentioned\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Historiography\u003C/strong>: a mixed assessment depending on the period\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Symbolism\u003C/strong>: the end of one era, the beginning of a new one\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Ch2>🔄 Transition to Louis XII\u003C/h2>\n\u003Ch3>Continuities\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Italian Wars\u003C/strong>: Louis XII continued the Italian policy\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Marriage to Anne of Brittany\u003C/strong>: the union preserved\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Administration\u003C/strong>: the reforms maintained\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Renaissance\u003C/strong>: the development of artistic patronage\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Ruptures\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cul>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Dynasty\u003C/strong>: the shift from the direct Valois to the Valois-Orléans\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Style of government\u003C/strong>: Louis XII more pragmatic\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Diplomacy\u003C/strong>: new alliances, different strategies\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Succession\u003C/strong>: the dynastic problem temporarily resolved\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\u003Ch3>Conclusion\u003C/h3>\n\u003Cp>The reign of Charles VIII, though short and marked by the Italian failure, opened a new era in the history of France. His marriage to Anne of Brittany completed the territorial unity of the kingdom, while his Italian expedition inaugurated the European conflicts of the sixteenth century and introduced the Renaissance into France.\u003C/p>\n",true,false,"The final three years of the reign of Charles VIII were marked by the consequences of the Italian expedition, succession problems and the king’s accidental",1783898187377]